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5 Study Questions and Solutions for Chapter 2 Z 1 Z 2 X W Z 3 Figure 2.5: A causal graph used in study question 2.5.1, all U terms (not shown) are assumed independent Y Study question (a) Which of the arrows in Figure 2.5 can be reversed without being detected by any statistical test? [Hint: Use the criterion for equivalence class.]
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